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Spinoza, Benedict De

"Political Treatise"


11. The consuls of the cities are likewise to be chosen by the
patricians of their city, and are to constitute a sort of senate for it.
But their number I cannot determine, nor yet do I think it necessary,
since the city's business of great importance is transacted by its
supreme council, and matters concerning the whole dominion by the great
senate. But if they be few, it will be necessary that they give their
votes in their council openly, and not by ballot, as in large councils.
For in small councils, when votes are given secretly, by a little extra
cunning one can easily detect the author of every vote, and in many ways
deceive the less attentive.
12. Besides, in every city judges are to be appointed by its supreme
council, from whose sentence, however, let everyone but an openly
convicted criminal or confessed debtor have a right of appeal to the
supreme court of justice of the dominion. But this need not be pursued
further.
13. It remains, therefore, to speak of the cities which are not
independent. If these were founded in an actual province or district of
the dominion, and their inhabitants are of the same nation and language,
they ought of necessity, like villages, to be esteemed parts of the
neighbouring cities, so that each of them should be under the government
of this or that independent city. And the reason of this is, that the
patricians are chosen by the supreme council, not of the dominion, but
of every city, and in every city are more or fewer, according to the
number of inhabitants within the limits of its jurisdiction (Sec.


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